Bachelor of Science in Health Care Administration/Management
Degree Overview
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The Health Care Administration/ Management Science Program provides an opportunity for students who are interested in preparing for rewarding and challenging careers by providing competency-based educational programs that meet the changing needs of employers of an emerging high demand health care industry. The graduates are expected to effectively function as entry level administrators/managers in response to health care reforms, trends, issues and problem solutions that affect health and welfare of the people.
While the Program is primarily under the School of Health Sciences, students' experiences are diversified and enriched by collaborative relationships with other Stratford programs including School of Business Administration, Computer Information Systems, and other affiliated health delivery systems in the region.
Program Requirements and Online Options
Students can complete the program through classroom instruction. Few electives and Arts and Sciences courses can also be completed online. It typically takes weeks 120 weeks (2.5 years) to complete the entire Bachelor’s program without breaks.
Credits Required
Number of Classes
Core Component
49.5
11
Electives
Pool 1: Health Sciences
36
8
Pool 2: CIS
13.5
3
Pool 3: Business
13.5
3
Pool 2 or 3
13.5
3
Arts and Sciences
54
12
Total Required for Graduation
180
40
Core Courses
Elective Pool 1: Health Sciences
Elective Pool 2: Computer Information Systems (CIS)
Elective Pool 3: Business
Arts and Sciences
Introduction to Healthcare Administration I - HCA401
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites:
This course is designed to provide students with the essential foundation of the U.S. Health System structure. It provides the students with a central theme of accountability of an effective management which is the essential foundation material of the U.S. Health System. This course teaches students practical and conceptual skills with the aim of helping students to focus on more efficient health care delivery. This course is also designed to teach students a common understanding of the system within management that must occur. It teaches the development of leadership skills, future trends in health care management, guidelines for designing effective work groups, and a section on managing conflict. It provides the students with a spin on health care management, how the principles of management apply in the field of health administration, and where we operate with organizational structures that are not found in industrial organizations. The students will examine the crucial area of corporate compliance, consumerism effects on the health care organization, and case studies presented to illustrate and stimulate critical thinking and promote discussions.
Epidemiology and Health Services Research - HCA402
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED120
This course is designed to provide professional growth and understanding of public health and management dynamics using the principles of epidemiology and research theories and methods and their applicability to demographics, rapid assessment techniques, survey analysis, health indicators (mortality and morbidity), risk assessment and control and randomized studies useful for health systems designs including needs assessment, planning, staffing, managing, and evaluation of health services. Special focus will be on the health and social determinants that affect health status, access to essential health care, capacity building and health service disparities.
Healthcare Financial Management - HCA403
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: BUS122
This course is designed in two modules. The first module presents the concepts, tools and techniques of health care financial management. It explores the policies, planning, financing, managing, and controlling various health care services organizations. It will provide knowledge and skills about preparation financial statements, reimbursement and billing system applicable to hospitals, managed care and other extended health care facilities. The focus of the course will be on financial planning, budgeting and managing Medicaid, Medicare and health maintenance organizations including capitation, fee-for
Strategic Health Planning - HCA404
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites:
This course is designed to provide students with the essential foundation addressing the philosophy and activities of strategic management and its activities such as strategic thinking, strategic planning, and managing strategic momentum. It provides the students with a central theme of accountability for the need and rationale for strategic management in today’s turbulent health care environment and briefly traces its historical foundations. This course teaches students a conceptual model or map that guides strategic thinking that focuses on important areas for strategic planning and provides the contracts for managing strategic momentum. This course is also designed to teach students directional strategies – mission, vision, values, and strategic goals. It teaches the development of strategic formulation concerned with making strategic decisions using the information gathered during situational analysis and the implementation of plans.
Long-Term Care - HCA405
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites:
This course is designed to examine the concepts and expanding role of long term care in the American health care services. It will also examine the continuum of long term care service including Nursing Care Facilities, Assisted Living Facilities, sub Acute Specialty Units (Long Term Acute Care "LTAC"), Adult Day Care, Home Health Care, Hospices and Community based alternatives. Entrepreneurial aspects of long term care services will offer to encourage students who aspire to establish their own business.
Medicare and Medicaid Administration - HCA406
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: HCA401 & HCA403
Health Policy and Reform - HCA407
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED270
Health Maintenance Organizations Managed Care - HCA408
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: BUS122 & MED270
This course is designed to familiarize students with the fundamentals of Health Maintenance Organization (HMO) since HMO Act of 1973. It will also covers the management, cost, quality and types of services provided by a variety of managed care organizations such as Staff Model, Independent Providers Organizations and Providers Preferred Organizations. The provision of prepaid insurance and health care services by the same providers through the health care continuum from childhood to old age is a new trend in integrated, cost effective and comprehensive health care for a significant number of
Minority and Health Disparity - HCA409
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: HCA401 & HCA402
This course is designed to examine the major health care disparities affecting racial and socio-economic economic minorities. The magnitude disparities of health care of he poor, uninsured and underinsured are proportionally increasing for the past decade. Racial minorities, aged populations are increasingly marginalized in the absence of alternative health care and insurance programs to cover the segment of the population. The records shoe that basic primary care services neither accessible nor available on demand as in he testy of insured population in the country. The young, adult, aged, racial and ethnic minorities experience negative health indicators, mortality, and disability rate which need immediate national intervention to resolved health care disparities and close the gap.
Health Management Seminar - HCA410
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: Senior status in good academic standing or written waiver by the Dean.
The course is designed as a seminar organized to invite well known health professionals, practitioners and health administrators and policy makers to address critical issues in health care administration. During the course the students will be assigned independent topics to be discussed by the class covering the weekly topics in which invited guests will address same topic as the student weekly papers. At the end of the course, the students will submit written term paper for evaluation based on the weekly topics for final evaluation.
Administrative Internship I - HCA411
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: Senior status in good academic standing and all course work must be completed prior to taking this course.
The purpose of the administrative internship I and II is to help students acquire basic knowledge and skill in practical management of designated health care settings under the supervision or preceptorship of a qualified faculty and rotating health care mangers. The students will be able demonstrate to their peers and faculty preceptors learned knowledge and skills in their rotation among the various units of a health care setting in order to satisfy the needs of the agency and their career path. At the conclusion of their rotation in a variety of health care settings such as managed care, hospitals, private practice, health insurance, skilled nursing facilities or other health related health care offices in local, state or federal agencies, the students will design, complete and present to their classmates, where possible, a short term paper summarizing their experiences on the job, as well as how these factors effectively relate to their didactic education. In so doing, the student will also demonstrate their technical, critical thinking and business writing skills.
Anatomy and Pathophysiology I - MED110
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is a scientific study of the structure of the human body and its parts, including relationships, functions, and disease processes of the integumentary digestive urinary systems, and nutrition and metabolism.
Medical Terminology - MED120
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course presents a study of basic medical terminology. Prefixes, suffixes, word roots, combining forms, special endings, plural forms, abbreviations, and symbols are included in the content. A programmed learning, word building systems approach is used to learn word parts for constructing or analyzing new terms. This provides the opportunity to decipher unfamiliar terms and check their spelling. Emphasis is placed on spelling, definition, usage, and pronunciation. Abbreviations are introduced as related terms are presented with each unit.
Medical Office Billing, Coding, and Insurance - MED130
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED120
This course will train the student in the major medical insurances and claims forms processing. It will include information on national and other common insurance plans, as well as claim form completion and ICD and CPT coding. Problem solving and managed care systems will also be discussed. Daily financial practices to include patient fee determining, credit arrangements bookkeeping and bank-keeping procedures will be discussed. Additionally the process of purchasing equipment and supplies will be covered. Computer use in the ambulatory environment will also be taught.
Medical Computer Applications - MED160
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: IST101
This course is designed to give the student exposure to computer software applications as used in the medical office environment. This includes the use of medical office management software for organizing front office procedures and word processing software for typing medical reports and transcription. Other medical software may also be introduced.
Domestic Violence - MED170
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course covers the various aspects of family violence, including its legal, social, economic, medical, and psychological impact on the family, individual, and community.
Anatomy and Pathophysiology II - MED210
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED110
This course is a scientific study of the structure of the human body and its parts, including relationships, functions, and disease processes of the cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, and reproductive systems.
Medical Law and Ethics - MED230
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is designed to cover medical jurisprudence and medical ethics. Legal aspects of office procedures are covered, including a discussion of various medical and ethical issues in today's medical environment.
Pharmacology - MED240
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED110 & MED210
Various aspects of clinical pharmacology will be discussed including a study of the various medications currently prescribed for the treatment of illnesses and diseases based on a systems method. Included in the course are common abbreviations used in prescription writing, interpretation of prescriptions, and legal aspects of prescriptions. In addition, dosage calculations and administration of medication will be taught and practiced.
Medical Office Practice - MED250
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED120
This course introduces the student to the administrative functions of the medical office or clinic. Emphasis is placed on written and oral communication, scheduling, medical records, documentation and filing. In addition, telephone techniques, etiquette and management/human resource skills will be covered.
Medical Finance and Insurance - MED270
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED120
This course will provide the student with training in such areas as managing medical records, billing and collections, financial management, medical insurance and medical office management. Computer use in the ambulatory environment will also be taught.
Therapeutic Communications - MED280
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course encompasses the nonverbal and verbal therapeutic communication skills needed to deal effectively with physicians, family members, and other health care professionals. This course will also aid the student in developing appropriate techniques in dealing with change within the medical environment.
Diseases of the Human Body - MIB130
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MED 110 & MED 120
This course is a scientific study of the human body’s diseases and disorders, including signs and symptoms, etiology, diagnosis and treatment
Introduction to Diagnostic and Procedures Coding - MIB210
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MIB 130
This course will cover the basic guidelines and coding conventions in the International Classification of Diseases, 9th revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). The focus of the course will be on the professional guidelines for outpatients. The proper diagnostic assignment based on the documentation will be discussed as well as the proper use of multiple codes, 1 digit, 4 digits, and 5 digits specificity. Laboratory component required
Electronic Medical Billing - MIB260
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
Students will be introduced to medical office reimbursement through electronic processes and procedures. This course covers billing and insurance procedures, contracts and requirements, principles and compliances to sustain medical practice, coding and claims processing for health plans using medical office
management software, submission of paper and electronic claims, inspecting and monitoring the billing process. Supplemental Lab Fee Required
Fundamentals of Information Systems - CIS103
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
Students learn to analyze systems and quality concepts and learn how information technology can be used to design, facilitate, and communicate organization goals and objectives. An overview of hardware and software with its relation to information technology is also presented.
Hardware and OS Architecture - CIS140
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course provides knowledge in preventative maintenance, troubleshooting and repair of expansion buses, multimedia, video, modems, SCSI controllers, laptops, and printers. In addition, this course provides a brief introduction to networking technology, including the components necessary to attach a client to a local area network LAN).
Data Communications - CIS143
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: CIS140
This course covers the basic concepts of networking technology within Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN) environments. Topics include the dominant network topologies (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI), network protocols (TCP/IP, SPX/IPX and NetBIOS), cabling systems (coaxial, twisted pair, fiber optic), as well as wireless communication. The course introduces the primary features of internetworking devices (bridges, routers, repeaters, hubs, gateways, and switches) and the OSI software model for computer communication. All topics are related to the historical development of the field.
Introduction to Relational Database Management Systems - CIS206
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is designed for students with limited or no previous database experience. Course outcomes include a solid understanding of fundamental database terms and concepts such as tables, queries, forms and reports, and their application using a popular database. This course also introduces database analysis, database design, and N-tiered client-server database systems. A problem-based approach using SQL is used in this course.
Introduction to Business - BUS100
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course provides a background on business and management. Students will discuss human relations, organizational structure, communications, technology in business, and strategic planning.
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Principles of Accounting I - BUS112
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is an introduction to the basics of accounting procedures. Topics include, accounting techniques and cycles, billings, balance sheets, and financial statements.
Sales and Marketing - BUS120
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course introduces the student to effective methods for marketing products and services. Direct mail, print time and other advertising techniques are discussed. Problem solving relative to customer relations is addressed. Consumer profiled, organizational personalities, and demographics are presented as components of market research and analysis.
Principles of Accounting II - BUS122
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: BUS112
This course expands the students knowledge of preparing balance sheets and financial statements. The student will prepare general ledger entries, prepare payroll, and discuss budget control.
Principles of Management - BUS135
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course presents management theory and the functions of planning, organizing, directing, staffing and controlling. This course also focuses on the application of management principles to realistic work-related situations.
Business Law - BUS200
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: Student must take any 100 level course beforehand
This course is an introductory to law and ethics and outlines the ethical responsibilities managers face when conducting business. This course includes vulnerability to lawsuits and litigation. American and international perspective and interpretations of laws and ethical standards are discussed.
Human Resource Management - BUS210
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: BUS100 or Equivalent
This introductory course concentrates on human resource management issues confronting organizations. These issues include organizational practices and legal aspects of recruitment, selection, training, orientation, and performance appraisals. Labor relations are discussed.
Business Communications - BUS220
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course prepares the student for communication in the workplace. The student will prepare memorandums, letters, proposals, presentations, newsletters, and flyers. Discussions will focus on information exchange in and outside of the organization. Students presentations will be critiqued on message intended and message received.
Principles of Economics - BUS250
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: BUS100 or Equivalent
This course examines supply and demand, market demand and elasticity, cost theory, market structures, pricing theory, and consumer behavior. Regulation, antitrust policy, and income distribution are also discussed.
Introduction to Financial Management - BUS310
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is for non-business majors only. This course introduces the student to topics in financial management such as financial statement analysis, capital budgeting analysis, working capital (accounts receivable, inventory, and cash) management, capital structure and cost of capital, and interest rate determination methods. Some integration of international finance in these topics is also presented, because of its significant impact on financial management. This course also presents a general view of the financial system, including the financial market system, financial institutions, the firm’s objective in the business environment, and the history of financial management. Note: Not open to students with credit for Financial Management (BUS300).
Project Management - BUS380
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course will allow students to manage a project within their major field of study. Students prepare a project plan that includes details of their project, deliverables, dates when they will be completed, and the associated learning that will be exhibited. Students implement their plan and record weekly status on their progress, issues, decisions, and learning. At the conclusion of the course, students complete their projects and summarize their results in a final report.
Diversity in the Workplace - BUS425
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course examines the management of a diverse workforce and the benefits of creating this diversity. Topics include understanding human behavior in an organization, changing marketplace realities, employment systems, affirmative action, behavior modification for employees and other topics related to a multicultural workforce.
College Composition - ENG111
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course focuses on reviewing grammar, sentence structure, punctuation skills, and style points required for effective written communication. Students use a standard handbook and apply proofreading skills to all types of written communications. The student is guided in learning writing as a process: understanding audience and purpose, exploring ideas and information, composing, revising, and editing.
Current Topics in English - ENG290
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None.
This course concentrates on current issues in English including, but not limited to, introductory topics in understanding and creating various genres of English communication such as narrative prose, technical communication, poetry, and cinematic forms.
Oral Communications - ENG310
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course presents the principles and functions of spoken communications. The student learns how to prepare to deliver various types of oral presentations. Emphasis is on planning and on how to orient content to a particular audience. Students present short talks and plan and present longer, more formal speeches on assigned topics and/or on topics of choice.
Advanced Composition and Research - ENG320
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: ENG111 or equivalent
This course emphasizes advanced writing and research including understanding the documentation process, presenting material in academic form, and academic research techniques. Materials may Include MLA and APA styles effective use of internet research tools, critical reading processes, and research writing techniques.
Special Topics in English - ENG490
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: ENG111 or equivalent.
This course concentrates on special topics in English. Topics may include, but are not limited to, advanced topics such as English philology and etymology, as well as advanced topics in rhetoric and critical interpretation of texts.
Principles of Ethics - HUM110
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course focuses on the application of ethics to personal and professional life. Positive and negative sides of behavior and how this affects self-image and self-respect will be discussed.
Spanish I - HUM210
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course uses vocabulary and structure through a series of activities designed for realistic communication which allow students to achieve both written and spoken Spanish language skills. Through reading, dialogue, and associated study, students develop an understanding of the language and cultural distinctions of Spanish speakers worldwide.
Special Topics in the Humanities - HUM290
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None.
This course concentrates on current issues in the humanities. Topics may include, but are not limited to, introductory topics in philosophy, religion, culture, and/or language arts.
World Literature - HUM320
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course emphasizes an understanding and appreciation of world literature. Materials covered Include Western and non-Western literary endeavors. Focus will be on similarities among the various literatures, analysis of literary genre, and appreciation of voice.
The American Experience - HUM330
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course emphasizes the development of American values and Institutions through analysis of social, political, and economic materials. The course examines the Influence of political, economic, social, and environmental factors as it explores Ideas of Individualism, success, and national character. Materials may include historical documents, literature, and social, political, and artistic works.
Understanding World Cultures - HUM410
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course discusses civilizations and cultures as they evolved from Eastern, Western, African and South American influences. The student is enabled to relate diverse cultures to their impact on contemporary society, politics, and world events.
Spanish II - HUM420
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: HUM310
This course reviews the fundamentals of the Spanish language and provides special attention to the continuing development of students' conversational and reading skills. Students build upon their understanding of the language in both written and oral forms.
Special Topics in the Humanities - HUM490
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None.
This course concentrates on special topics in the humanities. Topics may include, but are not limited to, advanced topics in ethics, philosophy, religious and cultural studies, and/or language arts.
Special Topics in Humanities II - HUM491
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course concentrates on special topics in the humanities. Topics may include, but are not limited to, advanced topics in ethics, philosophy, religious and cultural studies, and/or language arts.
Special Topics in Humanities III - HUM492
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course concentrates on special topics in the humanities. Topics may include, but are not limited to, advanced topics in ethics, philosophy, religious and cultural studies, and/or language arts.
Fundamentals of Mathematics - MAT110
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course provides an introduction to the basic techniques of mathematics and applies them to problem solving in different areas of business and industry. This course does not count towards the Bachelor's program.
College Algebra - MAT210
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course explores a series of algebraic concepts including rational expressions, radicals and exponents, quadratic equations, systems of equations, and applications.
Current Topics in Mathematics - MAT290
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course concentrates on current issues in mathematics. Topics may include, but are not limited to, set theory, algebraic concepts, geometry, and probability.
Statistics - MAT310
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course presents material essential in an increasing number of professional fields by providing a new type of competence, quantitative literacy. Topics include descriptive statistics; collecting and interpreting data; inferential statistics; probability; consumer mathematics; management mathematics; and growth and scaling.
Calculus - MAT410
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: MAT210 or equivalent
This course focuses on techniques of differential and integral calculus likely encountered in professional activities and real-world situations. Students will gain a sound, intuitive understanding of the basic concepts of calculus through a problem-solving approach. Topics include functions, graphs, and limits; differentiation; derivatives; exponential and logarithmic functions; integration; and variables.
Special Topics in Mathematics - MAT490
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: Permission of the Instructor
This course concentrates on special topics in mathematics. Topics may include, but are not limited to, mathematical history and philosophy, Euclidian and non-Euclidian geometries, linear algebra, polar coordinates, vectors, partial derivatives, line integrals, and multiple integrals, as well as applications for these topics.
Social Psychology - PSY110
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course provides an application of the Psychological principles to the development of a stable social framework within business and personal environments.
Current Topics in Psychology - PSY290
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None.
This course concentrates on current issues in psychology. Topics may include, but are not limited to, introductory topics in learning, memory, motivation, emotion, states of consciousness, psychological assessment, mental health, psychology of personality, and creativity.
Organizational Behavior - PSY310
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites:
Human Growth & Development - PSY320
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course emphasizes the psychological, cognitive, emotional, and social development of the human organism. Materials include those related to the various stages of the life span, and the developmental Influence of social class, the family, the school, and the group. A focus is placed on the abilities, needs, problems, and concerns of humans to change throughout life, and how people are shaped by their experiences throughout their development.
Critical Thinking and Reasoning - PSY340
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is designed to help students develop thinking skills and make good judgments. Participants are exposed to both logical and illogical thinking processes as a means to develop their skills in reasoning, analysis and the use of logical arguments. Various kinds of arguments are presented and analyzed, and logical fallacies are explored with the goal of reaching sound conclusions. Deductive and inductive reasoning are examined as are the criteria for sound reasoning and common reasoning mistakes people make. Students debate issues from different sides with both logical and illogical arguments.
Special Topics in Psychology - PSY490
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: PSY110 or equivalent.
This course concentrates on special topics in psychology. Topics may include, but are not limited to, advanced topics in deviant behavior, psychological testing and assessment, religious behavior, neurophysiology, and psychology and the law.
General Science - SCI110
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course examines scientific concepts and principles in an integrated manner to provide an overview of the sciences. Topics include physics, astronomy, chemistry, earth science, and biology as a means to address areas such as growing global population, limited resources and the fragile environment.
Microbiology - SCI250
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course examines the structure, nutrition, growth, genetics, classification, and ecology of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Attention will be given to methods of microbial control, and the human immune response to microbes. Students will also learn the fundamentals of microscopy, laboratory safety, scientific method and techniques of experimentation. Laboratory component required
Current Topics in Science - SCI290
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None.
This course concentrates on current issues in science. Topics may include, but are not limited to, introductory topics in meteorology, geology, ecology, evolutionary biology, and the space sciences.
Introduction to Biochemistry - SCI360
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: SCI110
This course examines the basic structures and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides and proteins and their role in human metabolism. Vitamins, co-enzymes, and minerals are examined and pathways for xenobiotic metabolism are discussed.
Impact of Science and Technology - SCI410
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course is an introduction to the basic concepts of science and future thinking. The content demonstrates how scientific and technological advances have significantly impacted all aspects of contemporary life.
Special Topics in Science - SCI490
Credits: 4.5Prerequisites: None
This course concentrates on special topics in science. Topics may include, but are not limited to, advanced topics in interdisciplinary topics such as the history of science and technology, cross-cultural studies of science, cosmology, biotechnology, the use of science and technology to enhance human abilities and quality of life, and techniques for assessment and remediation of science and technology hazards.












